AI Narratives: A Perspective from Classical Chinese Literary Culture

With continuous civilization spanning thousands of years from antiquity to modern times, China has experienced an astonishing degree of cultural continuity. Only in the past 150 years has China been exposed to imported Western thought such as industrialization, globalization, and cultural ideas transmitted through Hollywood’s soft power. In response to these adopted ideas, Chinese attitudes towards AI often seem to mirror Western conceptions of the relationship between man and machine as analogous to master and slave. However, 150 years of imported thought has not fully eclipsed the cultural continuities and philosophical traditions which have persisted domestically across many millennia; China continues to be shaped by its ancient past rooted in Confucianism and Daoism. This workshop sought to initiate a discussion exploring what these “sticky” cultural components and historical narratives can tell us about current perceptions towards AI.

Professor Zhang Baichun[i] of the Institute for the History of Natural Sciences at the Chinese Academy of Sciences introduced his research on the history of science and technology in China from the Warring States Period (475-221 BC) and the Eastern Han (25-220AD), to the Song and Yuan dynasties (960-1368 AD). He proposes that interpreting ancient philosophical attitudes towards equipment, arms, and machinery can help us understand the influence of Pre-Qin thought on the acceptance of the emerging technologies today.

Ancient texts and parables reveal that scholars of Mohism, Taoism, and Confucianism held an apprehensive view towards technological innovation and its expected disruption to the existing world order. For example, the influential 4th century philosopher Zhuangzi disapproved of the use of machines such as juxi (桔槔), a tool used to draw water from a well, believing that “where there are ingenious contrivances, there are sure to be subtle doings; and that, where there are subtle doings, there is sure to be a scheming mind.” Automatic machines and weapons were considered supernatural, and as such were met with suspicion in the minds of the key thinkers of the day.

Many people believe Taoist and Confucian thought is responsible for hindering China’s technological development with beliefs that everything manmade disrupts the natural order of the cosmos and should be rejected. In his talk, Professor Zhang disputes this ancestral blame and asserts that in each dynastic period, philosophical disdain for technology’s assimilation into society did not effectively subdue its development. As evidence, Zhang points to many new inventions that arose throughout the Warring States period and the Han, Tang, Northern Song, and Yuan dynasties. As summarized by Director of the Berggruen Institute China Center Song Bing: the philosophies of ancient China did not seem to inhibit its technologies.

Drawing a parallel from past to present, Zhang explained how according to ancient stories, new technologies were met with doubt fueled by a fear of the unknown. This pattern repeats in modern times: a lack of prior knowledge and understanding of how a technology works breeds uncertainty regarding the magnitude and beneficence of its effect, letting imagination govern expectations. Zhang went on to highlight how ancient stories emphasize the effect personal behavior can have on a technology’s intended use; for example, “a knife can be used to chop meat, or kill a person.” Taking these two lessons from the historic treatment of new technologies, we can extrapolate that attitudes towards AI may be primarily driven by the uncertainty surrounding two questions: How does the technology work and for what purpose will it be applied?

The workshop continued with a philosophical discussion of technology led by Gai Fei.[ii] A specialist in Chinese philosophy and ethics, Gai explained the distinction between skill, technique, and dexterity in the theory of technology. “The Dao” (道), refers to the way, path, or principles governing nature and how individuals should live their lives. To follow the Dao is the ultimate aim, but skills and techniques are the guiding path, or the means to reach this end. Accordingly, Daoist theory of technology can be described along two axes: weiqiao (为巧, practicing the skill), and weidao (为道，practising the Way). Gai sees modern parallels; where weiqiao is similar to using AI to improve productivity and achieve a better quality of life, whereas weidao is the process of achieving a state of harmony with AI technology.

Gai also pointed to how differences between the Eastern and Western beliefs around celestial beings are integral to informing our modern treatment of AI. From Greek mythology and monotheistic religions stems a stereotypical Western hierarchy presenting gods as superior to humans. Conversely, in Chinese mythology, supernatural beings are more accessible, occupying a more interactive and reciprocal role in human life. In Daoist thought, a human is the master of their own way, enabling all humans to become deities in the end. Furthermore, where Western thought often portrays supernatural beings as dark, scary, or evil entities who refuse to communicate with humans (e.g. ghosts, spirits, demons, and monsters), Chinese mythology often presents supernatural beings as benign forces who regularly interact with people. If treated well, the supernatural beings might even bestow blessings.